Islamic Heritage and Contemporary Challenges

Islamic Heritage and Contemporary Challenges

Bibliography of the Two Kaaba Hypothesis (The Southern Hijaz Kaaba in Present-Day Mecca and the Northern Hijaz Kaaba in the Petra Region)

Document Type : Original Article

Author
Author, Department of History/History of Islam Bagher-ol-Ulum University, Qom, Iran, Email: kazemostadi@gmail.com
Abstract
The Kaaba, as the holiest site in Islam, holds a status beyond that of a mere historical or ritual structure; it is considered a symbol of "monotheism, unity, and religious identity" for Muslims throughout Islamic history. This divine site, attributed to the Prophet Abraham (AS), is introduced in the Qur'an as the center of guidance for all humanity and plays a pivotal role in the rites of Hajj and as the Qibla for Muslims. The significance of the Kaaba is manifest not only in worship but also in the construction of the collective and political identity of the Islamic Ummah. However, in recent decades, some Western scholars, through historical and critical perspectives, have proposed hypotheses concerning the early origins of Islam and its geography, including the idea of two Kaabas in the southern (present-day Mecca) and northern Hijaz (Petra). In this context, works such as Hagarism and Early Islamic Qiblas have raised new questions on this matter. It appears that the hypothesis of multiplicity regarding the Abrahamic Kaaba, or ambiguity concerning its geography, as well as explanations for the initial origin of Islam, remain in their early stages. Consequently, it is necessary for thinkers and researchers to examine and evaluate the various dimensions of these viewpoints. To this end, providing a comprehensive bibliography on these issues is essential. This article, by introducing over two hundred primary and secondary sources related to the early origins of Islam, aims to provide a scholarly foundation for researchers to engage more substantially with this emerging and contentious field, so that its various aspects may be investigated more thoroughly and precisely.  
Keywords

Article Title Persian

مأخذشناسی فرضیه دو کعبه‌ای (کعبۀ جنوبِ حجاز در مکه کنونی و کعبۀ شمالِ حجاز در منطقۀ پترا)

Author Persian

کاظم استادی
1. نویسنده مسئول، گروه تاریخ/تاریخ اسلام، دانشگاه باقرالعلوم، قم، ایران، رایانامه: kazemostadi@gmail.com
Abstract Persian

کعبه به‌عنوان مقدس‌ترین اماکن اسلامی، جایگاهی فراتر از یک بنای تاریخی یا آیینی دارد؛ و به نوعی نماد «توحید، وحدت، و هویت دینی» مسلمانان در بستر تاریخ اسلام محسوب می‌گردد. این مکان الهی که به حضرت ابراهیم(ع) نسبت داده شده، در قرآن به‌عنوان مرکز هدایت برای همه انسان‌ها معرفی گشته و در ساختار مناسک حج و قبله‌گاه مسلمانان نقش محوری ایفا می‌کند. اهمیت کعبه نه تنها در عبادت بلکه در ساخت هویت جمعی و سیاسی امت اسلامی جلوه‌گر است. امّا در چند دهۀ اخیر، برخی پژوهشگران غربی با نگاه‌های تاریخی و انتقادی، فرضیه‌هایی درباره خاستگاه اولیه اسلام و جغرافیای آن و نیز، ایده وجود دو کعبه در جنوب (مکه کنونی) و شمال حجاز (پترا) مطرح نموده‌اند. در این میان، کتاب‌هایی چون «هاجریسم» و نیز «قبله‌های آغازین اسلامی» سؤالات جدیدی در این‌باره ایجاد کرده‌اند. به نظر می‌رسد که فرضیه چندگانگی در کعبۀ ابراهیمی یا ابهام در جغرافیای آن و نیز تبیین خاستگاه نخستین اسلام، در اول راه خود می‌باشد؛ و نیاز است تا اندیشمندان و پژوهشگران، ابعاد مختلف این دیدگاه‌ها را مورد بررسی و ارزیابی خود قرار دهند. به همین منظور، ارایه یک مأخذشناسی جامع در این مسائل، ضروری می‌باشد. مقاله حاضر با معرفی بیش از دویست اثر مستقیم و مرتبط با خاستگاه نخستین اسلام، تلاش دارد که بستری علمی برای ورود پررنگ‌تر محققان به این حوزه پرسش‌برانگیز و نوظهور را فراهم آورد؛ تا ابعاد مسائل آن، بیشتر و دقیق‌تر مورد پژوهش قرار گیرند.

Keywords Persian

تاریخ اسلام
تاریخ کعبه
تاریخ مکه
هاجریسم
پترا
گیبسو
Ibn al-Kalbī, Hishām ibn Muḥammad (2000). Kitāb al-Aṣnām (The Idols of the Arabs). Ed.: Aḥmad Zakī Ṣafwat. approx. 290 pp. Cairo: Dār al-Kutub al-Miṣriyyah. Persian translation: Kalbī, Hishām ibn Muḥammad (1348 SH). Bot-hā-ye Arab (The Idols of the Arabs). Trans.: Yūsuf Faḍāʾī. 316 pp. Tehran: Aṭṭāʾī.
Aḥmad, Mashhūd (2023). "Analyzing the Petra Theory of Early Islam: A Response to Tom Holland, J. Smith, and Dan Gibson." March 25. Website: https://trueislam.co.uk/articles/petra-theory-of-early-islam/.
Aḥmadī, ʿAlī (1398 SH). "The Role of Ibn ʿAllān al-Makkī in Compiling the History of Mecca and Medina." Journal of Miqāt al-Ḥajj, Autumn, No. 109, pp. 139-158. [In Persian]
Spencer, Robert B. (2012). Did Muhammad Exist? An Inquiry Into Islam's Obscure Origins. 362 pp. Wilmington: ISI Books.
Ustādī, Kāẓim (1403-1404 SH). "Collection of Notes on the Two Kaaba Hypothesis and Petra." Telegram Channels "Bā Man Bemān" and "Dīn az Negāhī Dīgar". https://t.me/kazimustadi & https://t.me/dinaznegahidigar. (These notes, in order of writing date, include titles such as "The Petra Region and Imam Husayn (AS)", "Distant or Near Hagar", "The Two Kaaba Theory", etc., with provided URLs).
Ismāʿīlī, Mihrān (1398 SH). "Determining the Boundaries of Yathrib/Medina during the Prophet's Era; A Critical Approach to Orientalist Studies." Historical Researches, Spring, No. 41, pp. 35-49. [In Persian]
Afrāsīyābī, Ghulām Riḍā (1383 SH). "The Foundation of the Kaaba (Parts 1 & 2)." Āʾīneye Mīrāth, Winter No. 23 & Spring No. 24, pp. 7-26 & 7-17. [In Persian]
Akbar, Raḥmatullāh; Aslan, Aḥmad; Muṣṭafā Qaym, Raḥmatullāh (2022). "Methods of Calculating Qibla Direction in Islamic Astronomy Sources in Indonesia." Aḥkām: Journal of Sharia Sciences, Vol. 22, No. 2, pp. 385–410.
Imām, Sayyid Jalāl (1386 SH). "The Kaaba and the Study of its Construction History in the Qur'an." Maʿrifat, Khordād, No. 114, pp. 55-74. [In Persian]
Amīrah bint ʿAlī Waṣfī Maddāḥ (1426 AH). "The Concern of the Ottomans with the Kiswah of the Noble Kaaba and its Development in the Modern Era 923 AH – 1346 AH / 1517 CE – 1927 CE." Umm al-Qurā University, Dhū al-Qaʿdah, No. 35, pp. 141-210.
Amīrzādah, Muḥammad ʿAlī (1388 SH). "A Text and a Mysterious History." Trans.: Majīd Muntaẓir Mahdī. Haft Aseman, Year 11, Summer, No. 42, pp. 35-56. [In Persian]
Amir-Moezzi, Mohammad Ali and Dye, Guillaume (Eds.) (2019). Le Coran des historiens (The Qur'an of the Historians). 3450+ pp. Paris: Éditions du Cerf.
Anderson, Mark (2018). "Is Mecca or Petra the True Birthplace of Islam?" Understanding Islam Today. Available at: https://understandingIslamtoday/is-mecca-or-petra-islams-true-birthplace (Reviewed November 26, 2019).
Anṣārī, Hādī (1399 SH). "Mecca or Petra; Which is the Muslims' Sacred City?" Online Note, Ordibehesht 9. Khabar Online Website. [In Persian]
Oaks, Richard W. (2015). "Review of Qur'anic Geography." The Muslim World, Vol. 105, pp. 423–426.
Ohlig, Karl-Heinz (2008). The Hidden Origins of Islam: New Research into Its Early History. 406 pp. New York: Prometheus Books.
Ohlig, Karl-Heinz; Popp, Volker (2013). The Beginnings of Islam: A Critical Reconstruction Based on Contemporary Sources. Trans.: Javid Namjoo. 304 pp. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books.
İlci, Veli; Özülü, İbrahim Murat; Arslan, Ursava; Alkan, Raha Metin (2018). "Examining the Accuracy of Existing Qibla in Mosques from Different Periods: A Case Study in Çorum City, Turkey." Technical Gazette, Vol. 25, No. 6, pp. 1642–1649.
Imhotep, Asher (2012). "Reexamining the Kaaba of Islam." 28 pp. unpublished PDF, August 2. Moka-Versity Institute of Philosophy and Research.
Āzarnīvash, ʿAbbāsʿalī (1392 SH). "The Urbanization Movement in the Early Centuries of the Islamic Caliphate." Journal of the History of Islamic Culture and Civilization, Summer, No. 11, pp. 113-134. [In Persian]
Āṣif Fikrat, Muḥammad (1370 SH). "The First Garment that the Khorasanians Dressed the Kaaba With." Mishkāt, Autumn, No. 32, pp. 59-68. [In Persian]
Avni, Gideon (1994). "Early Mosques in the Negev Highlands: New Archaeological Evidence on Islamic Penetration into Southern Palestine." Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, No. 294, pp. 83–100.
Bāmdādān, Muzdak (n.d.). Al-Masjid al-Aqṣā wa al-Qurʾān (Kashf al-Rāz min al-Aḥjīyah)[Masjid al-Aqsa and the Qur'an (Solving a Riddle)]. Place: Publisher not identified. [In Persian/Arabic?]
Brombacher, David A. (2019). Reforms in Early Qur'anic Manuscripts: Twenty Examples. USA: Think and Tell Press.
Brockhaus, Johannes Ebert, et al. (2011). Der große Brockhaus Atlas zur Weltgeschichte (The Great Brockhaus Atlas of World History). 400 pp. Mannheim: Brockhaus Verlag.
Bahārzādah, Parvīn and Farīdah Amīnī (1396 SH). "Conceptology and Evaluation of Narrations Indicating the Centrality of the Kaaba on Earth." Researches in Quran and Hadith Sciences, Spring, No. 33, pp. 1-30. [In Persian]
Al-Bahkalī, Ḥasan Aḥmad (1387 AH). "Our Ancient History in Light of Antiquities in Our Country (3): The Construction of the Noble Kaaba." Al-ʿArab, Year 2, Dhū al-Ḥijjah, Part 6, pp. 512-515.
Bīniyāz, Dāriyūsh (2022). "In Search of Muhammad in History." Telegram Channel and Blog. Address: https://javidnamjou.blogspot.com › blog-post_29. [In Persian]
Bīniyāz, Dāriyūsh (2022). "The Fabricated City of Mecca, the Achilles' Heel of Islamic Historiography." Telegram Channel Rāz-e Now. Address: https://t.me/raazenow/149. [In Persian]
Pākzād, M. A. (n.d.). The Muhammad Project (Two Volumes). Place: Publisher not identified. [In Persian]
Popp, Volker (2014). The Early Islam: From Ugarit to Samarra – A Historical Reconstruction of the Religion of Islam Based on Numismatic and Epigraphic Evidence. Trans.: Bīniyāz, [Dariush]. Persian Print. 303 pp. Germany-Canada-France: Pūgāh / Pūyā / Khāvarān / Furūgh Publications.
Popp, Volker; Ohlig, Karl-Heinz; Poin, Gerd-R. (Date unknown). The Dark Beginnings of Islam: Reconstructing History Based on Inscriptions and Coins. Trans.: Javid Namjoo. Place: Publisher not identified.
Pūyāzādah, Aʿẓam and Maryam Pīrvān (1393 SH). "A Critique of Gerald Hawting's View in the Book Idolatry and the Emergence of Islam." Researches in Quran and Hadith Sciences, Autumn, No. 23, pp. 33-60. [In Persian]
Petersen, Andrew (1996). "Qibla." In: Dictionary of Islamic Architecture. Ed.: Andrew Petersen. New York: Routledge, p. 240.
Pīrmarādiyān, Muṣṭafā and Mahdī ʿIzzatī (1393 SH). "The Inhabitants of Mecca (A Reflection on the Settlement of Mecca's Tribes and the Population of Quraysh on the Eve of the Advent of Islam)." Journal of the History of Islamic Culture and Civilization, Spring, No. 14, pp. 111-134. [In Persian]
Tājī, Īmān (1401 SH). "From the Believers' Movement to the Muslim Community: A Review of Fred Donner's Book Muhammad and the Believers: At the Origins of Islam." Durunmā, Khordad & Shahrivar, No. 7, pp. 1-7. [In Persian]
Takhtdāriyān, Mahri and Muḥsin Iḥtimāmī Niyā (1391 SH). Causes of the Qibla Change and its Consequences. Master's Thesis. Islamic Azad University, Central Tehran Branch, Faculty of Literature and Humanities. [In Persian]
Tafaẓẓulī, ʿAbbāsʿalī (1386 SH). "The Two Qiblas (Al-Masjid al-Aqṣā & Al-Masjid al-Ḥarām)." Journal of Jurisprudence and History of Civilization, Year 3, Summer, No. 12, pp. 29-46. [In Persian]
Taqīzādah Kūhbanānī, Maḥmūd and Ḥusayn Sulaymānī (1393 SH). The Status of Sacred Places in Jewish, Christian, and Islamic Rituals. Master's Thesis. University of Religions and Denominations, Faculty of Religions. [In Persian]
Tawḥīdī, Amīn Riḍā and Muṣṭafā Pīrmarādiyān (1400 SH). Politics and Pilgrimage in the Hijaz (From the Beginning to the Fall of the Abbasid Caliphate). 231 pp. Tehran: Mashʿar. [In Persian]
Jaʿfariyān, Rasūl (1374 SH). "The History of the Kaaba and Al-Masjid al-Ḥarām, [Review of] Muḥammad Maʿṣūm ibn Muḥammad Ṣāliḥ Damāvandī." Miqāt al-Ḥajj, Summer, No. 12, pp. 111-134. [In Persian]
Jaʿfariyān, Rasūl (1375 SH). "Curtaining and Key-keeping of the Kaaba." Miqāt al-Ḥajj, Spring, No. 15, pp. 82-90. [In Persian]
Al-Jallād, Aḥmad (1401 SH/2022 CE). "The Pre-Islamic Basmala: Reflections on the Earliest Epigraphic Attestation and its Original Significance." Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam, Vol. 52, pp. 1–28.
Al-Jallād, Aḥmad (2018). "The Arabic of Petra." In: The Petra Papyri V. Ed.: Arjava, A., Frosén, J., & Kaimio, M. Amman: American Center of Oriental Research, pp. 35–55.
Al-Jallād, Aḥmad (2025). The Religion and Rituals of the Pre-Islamic Arabian Nomads: A Reconstruction Based on the Ṣafaitic Inscriptions. 310 pp. Intro. and trans. from Ohio State University. Leiden: Brill.
Al-Jallād, Aḥmad (Date unspecified). "The Epigraphy of the Tribe of ʿĀd." (Draft).
Al-Jallād, Aḥmad (Date unspecified). "A Pre-Islamic Divine Name and the Context of the Qur'anic Testimony concerning Jesus." (Full publication details not available).
Al-Jallād, Aḥmad; Daniel, Robert; Al-Ghūl, ʿUmar (2013). "Arabic Geographical and Settlement Names in Petra." In: The Petra Papyri II. Ed.: Koenen, L., Kaimio, M., & Daniel, R. Amman: American Center of Oriental Research, pp. 23–48.
Al-Jallād, Aḥmad; Al-Ṣaydakī, Hishām (1401 SH/2022 CE). "An Old Arabic Inscription on the Northern Route, Ṭāʾif." Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy, Vol. 33, No. 1, pp. 202–215.
Al-Jallād, Aḥmad; Al-Ṣaydakī, Hishām (1403 SH/2024 CE). "An Old Arabic Inscription by a Companion of Muḥammad?" Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 83, No. 1, pp. 1–14.
Jamshīdpūr, Ārash (1404 SH). "Islam and Petra; Evaluating Dan Gibson's Claim about the Origin of Islam from the Perspective of the Petra Papyri." Undated. Dīn Online Website. Address: https://www.dinonline.com/44953. [In Persian]
Jamshīdpūr, Ārash (1404 SH). "The Petra Papyri and their Importance in Islamic and Qur'anic Studies." Undated. Dīn Online Website. Address: https://www.dinonline.com/44227. [In Persian]
Jamshīdpūr, Ārash (1404 SH). "A Very Important Finding in Islamic Studies; The Inscription of Ḥanẓalah bin Abī ʿĀmir." Undated. Dīn Online Website. Address: https://www.dinonline.com/43378. [In Persian]
Ḥāj Amīnī, Ḥamīd (1398 SH). "Mecca or Petra? A Reflection on the Hagarist Origin Hypothesis of Islam." Scientific Meeting, Khordad 21. Qom: National Center for Answering Religious Questions. [In Persian]
Ḥasan Zādah; Ṣāliḥ (1396 SH). "Analysis of the Kaaba Narrative in the Qur'an and Hadith Based on the Verse 'Indeed, the first House [of worship] established for mankind was...'." Journal of Miqāt al-Ḥajj, Winter, No. 102, pp. 81-107. [In Persian]
Ḥasanī, Sayyid ʿAlī (1384 SH). "The Status of the Kaaba among Pre-Islamic Peoples and Followers of Different Religions." Maʿrifat, Ābān, No. 95, pp. 42-45. [In Persian]
Al-Ḥusaynī, Sayyid Muṣṭafā and Muḥammad Taqī Anṣārīpūr (1402 SH). Evaluating Arguments Pertaining to Inconsistencies Between Qur'anic Verses and Existing Reports in the Bible with the Current Location of Mecca. Master's Thesis. University of Religions and Denominations, Faculty of Religions. [In Persian]
Al-Ḥuṭlānī, ʿAbdullāh Saʿd; Al-ʿUtaybī, ʿAjab Muḥammad (1402 SH/2023 CE). "An Old Arabic Inscription from the Ḥismā Desert (Tabūk Region)." Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy, 2023, pp. 1–11.
Khalīlīzādah, Murtaḍā (1400 SH). "Critique of the Views of Makārim Shīrāzī and Rashīd Riḍā on the History of the Kaaba's Construction in Tafsīr al-Manār and Tafsīr-i Nimūnah." Fifth International Conference on Islamic Sciences, Religious Studies and Law. [In Persian]
Khalīlī Nizhād, Sayyid Muḥsin and Jaʿfar Nekūnām (1399 SH). A Comparative Study of Sacred Places in the Qur'an and the Bible and its Impact on Understanding the Qur'an. Ph.D. Dissertation. Qom University, Faculty of Theology and Islamic Studies. [In Persian]
Khalīlī, Hamāsah (1387 SH). "The Kaaba Covering." Kitāb-i Māh-i Hunar, Ābān, No. 122, pp. 30-40. [In Persian]
Khalīlī Nizhād, Sayyid Muḥsin and Jaʿfar Nekūnām (1399 SH). "Critique of Gibson's Claim Regarding the Qibla Change from Petra to the Kaaba by Citing Qur'anic Verses." Kitāb-i Qayyim, Spring & Summer, No. 22, pp. 7-24. [In Persian]
Donner, Fred M. (1981). The Early Islamic Conquests. 487 pp. USA: Princeton University Press.
Donner, Fred M. (1998). Narratives of Islamic Origins: The Beginnings of Islamic Historical Writing. 385 pp. Princeton: The Darwin Press.
Donner, Fred M. (2010). Muhammad and the Believers: At the Origins of Islam. approx. 300 pp. Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
Donner, Fred and Hasselbach-Andee, Rebecca (Eds.) (2022). Language, Scripts, and Crasses: Writing and Religion in Arabia, ca. 500–700 CE. 520 pp. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Duri, Michael (2018). The Qur'an and Its Biblical Reflexes: Investigations into the Genesis of a Religion. Lexington Books, USA.
Rabīʿ Natāj, Sayyid ʿAlī Akbar and Zahrā Lāzarī (1390 SH). "An Inquiry into the Ḥadīth of 'Daḥw al-Arḍ'." Ḥadīth Pazhūhī, Spring & Summer, No. 5, pp. 273-294. [In Persian]
Rastgār, Maryam and ʿAlī Pīrhādī and Valī Allāh Naqīpūr Far (1401 SH). "Critique of the Characterization of Sarah versus Hagar and the Migration to Hijaz." Journal of Qur'anic Teachings, Year 19, Autumn, No. 36, pp. 121-142. [In Persian]
Rasūlī Maḥallātī, Sayyid Hāshim (1365 SH). "The Story of the Kaaba's Reconstruction." Pāsdār-i Islām, Farvardīn, No. 52, pp. 28-31. [In Persian]
Riḍāʾī, Fāṭimah and Yūnus Farahmand and Mūsā Akramī and Qanbarʿalī Rūdgār (1398 SH). "Qibla Finding Based on Folk Astronomy in Andalusia." Tārīkh wa Farhang, Year 51, Autumn, No. 103, pp. 71-94. [In Persian]
Rafīʿī, Muḥammad Ḥusayn (1393 SH). "Fragments of Islamic Studies (5); Islamic Studies in the West (2): Patricia Crone and the End of Orientalism." Āʾīneye Pazhūhish, Āzar & Esfand, Nos. 149 & 150, pp. 115-122. [In Persian]
Reynolds, Gabriel Said (Ed.) (2008). The Qurʾān in Its Historical Context. London: Routledge.
Reynolds, Gabriel Said (Ed.) (2011). New Perspectives on the Qurʾān: The Qurʾān in Its Historical Context 2. London: Routledge.
Reynolds, Gabriel Said (2018). The Qurʾān and the Bible. Yale University Press. Group of Translators: ʿAnqāʾ. Place: Nashr-i ʿAnqāʾ.
Rius-Piniés, Mònica (2023). "Which Qibla Direction is Correct?" In: Brentjes, Sonja (Ed.). The Routledge Handbook on the Sciences in Islamicate Societies. USA: Routledge, pp. 741–751.
Zayn al-ʿĀbidīn, ʿAbd al-Salām (1379 SH). "Al-Kaʿbah al-Musharrafah: The Secret of its Construction and Location (A Reading in the Sermon of al-Qāṣiʿah)." Miqāt al-Ḥajj (Arabic), Autumn, No. 14, pp. 277-290.
Robin, Christian J. (1401 SH). *1400 Years of Kingdom in Pre-Islamic Arabia*. Trans.: Muḥammad ʿAlī Khwānīnzādah. 520 pp. Tehran: Ḥikmat. [In Persian]
Sāzjīnī, Murtaḍā (1399 SH). Critique of the Doubts in the Book "Letters for Muhammad the Prophet (PBUH)/ A Research on the Roots of the Qur'an". Ph.D. Dissertation. Supervisors: Raḥman ʿUshriyah, Muḥammad ʿAlī Riḍāʾī Iṣfahānī. Qurʾān University, Qom Faculty of Qurʾānic Sciences. [In Persian]
Sāzjīnī, Murtaḍā and Raḥman ʿUshriyah and Muḥammad ʿAlī Riḍāʾī Iṣfahānī (1397 SH). "A Critical Analysis of the Doubt of the Qur'an Being a Collection of Letters." Qurʾānic Theology, Spring & Summer, No. 10, pp. 35-55. [In Persian]
Sāzjīnī, Murtaḍā and Raḥman ʿUshriyah and Muḥammad ʿAlī Riḍāʾī Iṣfahānī (1398 SH). "A Comparative Study of Ebionite Rituals and the Qur'an: Responding to the Doubt of Borrowing." Religious Researches, Autumn & Winter, No. 14, pp. 8-33. [In Persian]
Sālim, ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz (1380 SH). Tārīkh-i ʿArab Qabl az Islām (History of the Arabs before Islam). Trans.: Bāqir Ṣadrī Niyā. 440 pp. Tehran: Scientific and Cultural Publications. [In Persian]
Sāmānī, Maḥmūd, and Pazhūhishkadah-i Ḥajj wa Ziyārat (1393 SH). Iranians' Relations with Hijaz in Different Periods of Islamic History. 252 pp. Tehran: Mashʿar. [In Persian]
Sargulī, Sajjād (1402-1404 SH). "Collection of Notes on the Mecca-Jerusalem Dichotomy." Telegram Channel Ilahiyyātīk. https://t.me/elahiatik. (Titles of notes concerning the Mecca-Jerusalem dichotomy, in order of writing date, include "Which Masjid al-Aqsa?", "The Temple of Jerusalem", "The Temple of Jerusalem in the Qur'an", etc., with provided URLs). [In Persian]
Sulṭānī, Sayyid Muḥammad and Muḥsin al-Waʿirī and Ḥusayn Fallāḥzādah (1401 SH). "Critique of the View of the Qur'an's Emergence Based on Syriac Texts." Qurʾān Research of Orientalists, Spring & Summer, No. 32, pp. 152-176. [In Persian]
Sulīkīn, Aḥmad; Dāmānhūrī, ʿAbd al-Razzāq (2024). "Correlation and Regression Analysis Between Foundation Year and Qibla Direction Deviation of Friday Mosques in East Java." Journal of Mathematics, Science, and Technology Education, Vol. 9, No. 1, pp. 21–32.
Sayyid Zahrān (1363 AH). "Islamic Mosques: Al-Masjid al-Ḥarām (8 & 9): The Kaaba and its Annexes." Al-Masājid, Year 2, Rabīʿ al-Awwal & Jumādā al-Ūlā, Nos. 3 & 5, pp. 329-331 & 361-362.
Sayfullāh, Muḥammad Salīm; Ghanīm, Majdī; ʿAbd al-Raḥmān, Aḥmad; Squires, Richard; Aḥmad, Muṣṭafā (2001). "The Qibla of Early Mosques: Jerusalem or Mecca?" Available at: www.islamic-awareness.org/History/Islam/Dome_of_the_Rock/qibla.html (Reviewed February 23, 2020).
Sinai, Nicolai (2017). The Qur'an: A Historical-Critical Introduction. Edinburgh University Press, UK.
Shāddel, Mahdī (2017). "Qur'anic Onomastic Studies: Al-Raqīm, the Secret of Nabataea." Journal of Semitic Studies, Vol. 62, pp. 303–318.
Shāhmīrānī, Nāhīd and Zuhrah Akhavān Muqaddam (1395 SH). "A Comparative Study of the Opinions of Sunni and Shi'a Commentators on the Nature and Location of Al-Bayt al-Maʿmūr." Comparative Tafsir Studies, Spring & Summer, No. 1, pp. 87-106. [In Persian]
Al-Shuʿār, Mahā (1442 AH). "The History of Using Precious Materials in Adorning Religious Buildings - The Noble Kaaba as a Model." Āfāq al-Thaqāfah wa al-Turāth, Rajab, No. 113, pp. 112-136.
Shafīʿī Khūzānī, Saʿīd (1393 SH). "The Oldest Non-Islamic Writings on the Emergence of Islam and the Qur'an." Iranian and Islamic Historical Researches, Spring & Summer, No. 14, pp. 113-140. [In Persian]
Shafīʿī Khūzānī, Saʿīd (1398 SH). "A Survey of Trends in Qur'anic Historical Studies in the West (With a Critical Approach to the New Skepticism Trend)." Qur'an and Hadith Researches, Year 52, Spring, No. 1, pp. 69-93. [In Persian]
Shakuryān, Nāṣir (1385 SH). "The Names, Characteristics, and Rulings of the Kaaba in the Qur'an." Miqāt al-Ḥajj, Year 14, Spring, No. 55. [In Persian]
Shantah, Ḥasan Yāsīn and Sayyid ʿAlī Riḍā Asharfī Qamarūdī (1397 SH). Determining the Qibla Direction and Distance to Mecca. Master's Thesis. Kāshān University, Faculty of Mathematical Sciences. [In Persian]
Schumm, William R. (2020). "How Accurately Could Early Muslims (622–900 CE) Determine the Direction of the Qibla?" Religions, Vol. 11, No. 102, pp. 1–16.
Schumm, William R.; Ferguson, Alan D.; Hashmat, Muhammad S.; Niu, Tom Li (2005). "Contradictory Differences Between Islam and Christianity: A Statistical Comparison." Islam and Christian–Muslim Relations, Vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 167–185.
Schumm, William R.; Crawford, David W.; Barki, Peter E.; Bush, Daniel; Bush, David W. (2021). "Using Statistics to Analyze Anthropological/Religious Issues from the Deep Past." Anthropological Insights, Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 337–346.
Schumm, William R.; Goldstein, Zachary (2021). "A Statistical Evaluation of Early Islamic History and Qibla: Comparing the Theories of David King and Dan Gibson." Open Access Journal of Archaeology & Anthropology, Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 1–20.
Schumm, William R.; Goldstein, Zachary (2023, a). "Statistical Analysis of Qibla Data." Chapter 3 in: Dan Gibson, Let the Stones Speak: Archaeology Challenges Islam. Canada: Independent Scholars Press / CanBooks, pp. 39–56.
Schumm, William R.; Goldstein, Zachary (2023, b). "A Statistical Test of David King's Qibla Theory." Appendix 3 in: Dan Gibson, Let the Stones Speak: Archaeology Challenges Islam. Canada: Independent Scholars Press / CanBooks, pp. 322–327.
Shoemaker, Stephen J. (2003). "Christmas in the Qur'an: The Qur'anic Account of Jesus' Nativity and Palestinian Local Tradition." Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam, No. 28, pp. 11–39.
Ṣabbāghī, Ṣābir and Manṣūr Pahlavān (1393 SH). The Change of Qibla from the Perspective of the Qur'an and Narrations and a Critique of Orientalists' Views. Master's Thesis. University of Tehran, Faculty of Theology and Islamic Studies. [In Persian]
Ṣabrī Pāshā, Ayyūb and Sayyid ʿAlī Qāẓī ʿAskar (1378 SH). "Construction Around the Kaaba." Miqāt al-Ḥajj, Autumn, No. 29, pp. 123-129. [In Persian]
Ṣafarī Farūshānī, Niʿmat Allāh (1404 SH). The Fallacy of Mecca or Petra (Parts 1 & 2; A Discussion from the 16th Session of the Workshop on Citation Fallacies). Eitaa Address: https://eitaa.com/joinchat/3117417555C0aced68c60. [In Persian]
Tarjān Yilmaz (1381 SH). "The Kaaba and its Historical-Artistic Objects." Trans.: Muḥammad Riḍā Niʿmatī. Miqāt al-Ḥajj, Summer, Nos. 39, 40, 41, 42, pp. 115-132, 91-112, 101-111, 142-170. [In Persian]
ʿĀdil ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz, Muḥammad (1430 AH). "Al-Kaʿbah bayn al-Islām wa al-ʿIlm." Minbar al-Islām, Year 68, Dhū al-Qaʿdah, No. 11, pp. 31-32.
ʿAbbās, Waḥīd and Muḥammad Riḍā Sāzmand (1401 SH). Examining the Qibla Verses from the Perspective of Commentators from the 1st to the end of the 6th Century AH. Master's Thesis. Al-Muṣṭafā International University, Higher Education Complex of Jurisprudence. [In Persian]
ʿAbbāsī, Jawād and Mihnāz Mūsawī Muqaddam (1390 SH). "A Study of the Relations of Shāhrukh Tīmūr with the Mamluks - Based on Efforts to Change the Kaaba Covering." History of Foreign Relations, Summer, No. 47, pp. 97-120. [In Persian]
ʿAbd al-Ghanī Muḥammad ʿAbd Allāh (1396 AH). "ʿImārat al-Kaʿbah ḥattā al-ʿAṣr al-Umawī." Al-Waʿy al-Islāmī, Year 12, Dhū al-Ḥijjah, No. 144, pp. 68-79.
ʿAbd Allāhpūr, Nasrīn and Maḥbʿalī Ābsālān (1395 SH). A Study of Sacred Places and Times in the Holy Qur'an. Master's Thesis. University of Sistan and Baluchestan, Faculty of Theology. [In Persian]
ʿAlawī, Sayyid Ḥusayn and Muḥammad Jawād Iskandarlū (1396 SH). "Ḥajj from the Perspective of Orientalists (With Emphasis on the Encyclopedia of the Qur'an, Leiden)." Journal of Miqāt al-Ḥajj, Autumn, No. 101, pp. 105-126. [In Persian]
ʿAlī, Aḥmad (1375 SH). Ḥijāz dar Ṣadr-i Islām (Ḥijāz in Early Islam: A Study of its Civil and Administrative Conditions). Trans.: ʿAbd al-Muḥammad Āyatī. 608 pp. Tehran: Mashʿar. [In Persian]
Al-Ghūl, ʿUmar (1999). "Building Names in Greek Papyrus No. 10 from Petra." Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies, Vol. 29, pp. 67–71.
Al-Ghūl, ʿUmar (2006). "Preliminary Notes on the Arabic Material in the Petra Papyri." Topoi, Vol. 14/1, pp. 139–169.
Fāṭimī, Sayyid Ḥasan (1399 SH). "In Which Mosque, Which Month, and Which Prayer Did the Qibla Change Occur?" Journal of Miqāt al-Ḥajj, Autumn, No. 113, pp. 115-139. [In Persian]
Firestone, Reuven (2019). "Muhammad, the Jews, and the Composition of the Qur'an: Sacred History and Counter-History." Religions, Vol. 10, No. 63, pp. 1–14.
Farshīdiyān Pūr, Ṣadiqah and Bahādar Qaym (1399 SH). The Guardianship of Mecca from the Prophet's Era to the End of the Abbasid Period. Master's Thesis. Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz, Faculty of Literature and Humanities. [In Persian]
Farhang, Muḥammad Riḍā (1376 SH). "Places and Artifacts: A Report on the Two Reconstructions of the Kaaba and Al-Masjid al-Ḥarām." Miqāt al-Ḥajj, Summer, No. 20, pp. 103-114. [In Persian]
Fikrat, Āṣif (1372 SH). "Places and Artifacts: The Khorasanian Garment on the Kaaba's Frame." Miqāt al-Ḥajj, Autumn, No. 5, pp. 123-136. [In Persian]
Fatāḥiyān Barāzandah, Līlā and ʿAlī Riḍā Ushtarī Tafrashī (1395 SH). The Place of Patricia Crone's Studies in Western Islamic Studies. Master's Thesis. Imam Khomeini International University, Faculty of Theology and Islamic Studies. [In Persian]
Fisher, Greg & McDonald, Michael; Cerkia, Aldo; Daryaee, Touraj; Gibbs, Matt; Levin, Arin; Violante, Donata; Whately, Conor (1400 SH). Arabs and Empires before Islam. Trans.: Mahnāz Bābāʾī. 152 pp. Tehran: Murvārīd. [In Persian]
Qurbān Nizhād, Parīsā and Nāṣir ʿAyyārī (1398 SH). "A Comparative Study of Muslim Travelers' Accounts of the Kaaba and Al-Masjid al-Ḥarām (3rd-8th Centuries AH)." Journal of the History of Islamic Culture and Civilization, Winter, No. 37, pp. 53-68. [In Persian]
Qashshāsh, Aḥmad bin Saʿīd (2015). Nuqūsh al-Ṣaḥābī al-Jalīl Khālid bin al-ʿĀṣ wa Abnāʾihi fī Minṭaqat al-Bāḥah. Beirut: Muʾassasat al-Intishār al-ʿArabī.
Qaḍāʾī, Amīn (n.d.). Nāmahʾhāyī barāy-i Muḥammad Payghambar (A Research on the Roots of the Qur'an). Place: Publisher not identified. [In Persian]
Kāẓimī, Muḥammad Ḥusayn and Zahrā Rūḥ Allāhī Amīrī (1401 SH). "Social and Doctrinal Characteristics among Arabs Contemporary with the Advent of Islam in the Poems of Khansā'." Sukhan-i Tārīkh, Year 16, Spring, No. 37, pp. 114-137. [In Persian]
Calder, Norman (1988). Review of The First Dynasty of Islam by G.R. Hawting. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, Vol. 51, No. 1, February.
Kaegi, Walter E. (1991). Byzantium and the Early Islamic Conquests. Cambridge University Press, UK.
Crone, Patricia and Cook, Michael (1977). Hagarism: The Making of the Islamic World. approx. 150 pp. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Crone, Patricia (1987). Meccan Trade and the Rise of Islam. approx. 250 pp. New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
Crone, Patricia (1389 SH). Tārīkh-i Andīshah-i Siyāsī dar Islām (History of Political Thought in Islam). Trans.: Masʿūd Jaʿfarī. 756 pp. Tehran: Sukhan. [In Persian]
Crone, Patricia (1990). "Review of The Origins of Islam." Journal of Islamic Studies, Vol. 18, No. 4, pp. 95–120.
Crone, Patricia (1994). Early Islam: History, Sources, and Traditions (with Martin Hinds). 280 pp. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Crone, Patricia (1998). "A Critique of Early Islamic Sources." Journal of Middle East History, Vol. 22, No. 2, pp. 75–105.
Crone, Patricia (2003). Islam, History, and Civilization. 360 pp. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Crone, Patricia (2005). "How Did the Qur'anic Pagans Make a Living?" Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, Vol. 68, No. 3, pp. 387–399.
Karīmpūr, Saʿīd (1393 SH). Abrahamic Religions and the Issue of the Promised Prophet: A New Look at the Glad Tidings in the Torah and Gospel about the Prophet of Islam (PBUH). 280 pp. Tehran: Āmah. (Regarding the non-alignment of Mecca and Paran, a 70-page appendix is included at the end of the book). [In Persian]
Karīmpūr, Saʿīd and ʿAlī Rād (1395 SH). "Analysis and Critique of the Hypothesis of Samaritan Influence on Islam." Theological Researches Quarterly, Autumn, No. 14, pp. 103-118. [In Persian]
Karīmpūr, Saʿīd and ʿAlī Rād (1395 SH). Analysis and Critique of Hagarism Based on Qur'anic Verses and Islamic Narrations. Master's Thesis. University of Tehran, Farabi Campus - Faculty of Theology. [In Persian]
Karīmpūr, Saʿīd and ʿAlī Rād (1396 SH). "The Hypothesis of the Hagarist Origin of Islam, Analysis and Critique." Philosophy of Religion, Vol. 4, No. 14, pp. 769-786. [In Persian]
Karīmī Kandarūd, Āydā and Mihrān Ismāʿīlī (1395 SH). A Comparative Study of the Relations of Quraysh Tribes during the Prophet's Era. Master's Thesis. Shahid Beheshti University, Faculty of Theology and Religions. [In Persian]
Karīmī Niyā, Murtaḍā (1386 SH). Sīrah Research in the West: Selected Texts and Sources. 904 pp. Tehran: The World Forum for Proximity of Islamic Schools of Thought. [In Persian]
Cook, Michael (1388 SH). "A Semantic Hadith on the Qibla in al-Kulaynī's al-Kāfī." Trans.: Sayyid Ḥasan Islāmī. ʿUlūm-i Ḥadīth, Spring, No. 51, pp. 150-170. [In Persian]
Cook, Michael (1977). The Emergence of Islam. 295 pp. London: Cambridge University Press.
Cook, Michael (1980). "Review of Early Muslim Dogma." Journal of Islamic Studies, Vol. 17, No. 1, pp. 45–78.
Cook, Michael (1983). Muhammad. 320 pp. New York: Oxford University Press.
Cook, Michael (1985). "An Historical Analysis of the Origins of Islam." Journal of Middle East History, Vol. 20, No. 2, pp. 60–90.
King, David A. (1983). "On the Qibla of al-Bīrūnī in Early Islamic Transoxania." History of Arabic Sciences, May & October 1983, Vol. 7, Nos. 1 & 2, pp. 132–158.
King, David A. (1986). "Kibla." In: Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Leiden: Brill, Vol. 5, pp. 82–88.
King, David A. (1990). "Science in the Service of Religion: The Case of Islam." Impact of Science on Society, Vol. 40, No. 3, pp. 245–262.
King, David A. (1993). "Astronomy in the Service of Religion: The Case of Islam." In: Ruggles, C.L.N. & Saunders, N.J. (Eds.). Astronomies and Cultures: Papers from the Third Oxford International Symposium on Archaeoastronomy, St. Andrews, UK, September 1990. USA: University Press of Colorado, pp. 124–138.
King, David A. (1996). "Astronomy and Islamic Society: Qibla, Gnomonics, and Timekeeping." In: Rashed, R. (Ed.). Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science. Vol. 3: Technology, Alchemy and Life Sciences. USA: Taylor & Francis, pp. 128–184.
King, David A. (2000). "Mathematical Astronomy in Islamic Civilisation." In: Selin, H. (Ed.). Astronomy Across Cultures: The History of Non-Western Astronomy. Netherlands: Springer, pp. 585–613.
King, David A. (2016). Islamic Astronomy and Geography. USA: Routledge.
King, David A. (2018–2019). "A Review of Early Islamic Qiblas." Suhayl: Journal for the History of the Exact and Natural Sciences in Islamic Civilisation, Nos. 16–17, pp. 347–366.
King, David A. (2018). "The Petra Fallacy: Early Mosques Do Face the Sacred Kaaba in Mecca, But Dan Gibson Doesn't Know How." Available at: www.davidaking.academia.edu (Reviewed November 26, 2019).
King, David A. (2020). "Islamic Sacred Geography and the Determination of the Qibla using the Sun and Stars: A Survey of Historical Sources with an Appendix on Some Recent Errors in Mosque Orientations." Journal of Arabic-Islamic History of Science, No. 22, pp. 91–141.
King, David A. (2024). "Mistakes about Early Islam: Dan Gibson and Amos J. Dheus on the Sacred Direction (Qibla) and Tom Holland on Prayer Rituals." Science and Engineering in the Islamic Heritage. Center for the Study of Islamic Manuscripts, Al-Furqan Islamic Heritage Foundation, Lebanon, pp. 23–58.
King, David A. (2024). "The Kaaba and the Sacred Geography of Islam: Revisiting 'The Faces of the Kaaba' (1982)." [Unpublished].
Grasso, Valentina (2021). Pre-Islamic Arabia: Societies, Politics, Cults and Identities during Late Antiquity. approx. 350 pp. London: Oxford University Press.
Griffith, Sidney H. (2008). "Christian Lore and the Arabic Qur'an: The 'Companions of the Cave' in Sūrat al-Kahf and in Syriac Christian Tradition." In: Reynolds, Gabriel Said (Ed.). The Qurʾān in Its Historical Context. London: Routledge, pp. 109–138. (This article was translated into Persian by Mr. Zuhayr Mīkarīmī as "Maʿārif-i Masīḥī wa Qurʾān-i ʿArabī" and published on the ʿAnqāʾ channel).
Gibson, Dan (2011). Qur'anic Geography: A Survey and Evaluation of Geographical References in the Qur'an with Reference to Historical and Field Data. 470 pp. Canada: Independent Scholars Press.
Gibson, Dan (2016). The Sacred City. Television documentary directed by David Taylor, 85 min., produced in the UK.
Gibson, Dan (2017). *Early Islamic Qiblas: A Study of Mosques Built Between 1 AH / 622 CE and 263 AH / 876 CE*. 320 pp., Vancouver, Canada: Independent Scholars Press.
Gibson, Dan (2023). Let the Stones Speak: A New Look at the Archeology of Islam. 270 pp., Canada: Independent Scholars Press / CanBooks.
Larsson, Göran (2012). "History is Back! Implications of Critical Studies of Early Islam for Scholarship and Education." Islam and Christian–Muslim Relations, Vol. 23, pp. 531–537.
Lecker, Michael (n.d.). "A Short Critique of Gibson's Views." doi: 10.1093/jss/fgu020.
Lecker, Michael (2014). "Review of Qur'ānic Geography." Journal of Semitic Studies, Vol. 59, pp. 465–467.
Langroudi, Armin (2018). "On the Mythical Backgrounds of Mecca and the Kaaba." Published on Academia.edu. Available from: https://www.academia.edu/37326670/…
Luxenberg, Christoph (2000). Die syro-aramäische Lesart des Koran: Ein Beitrag zur Entschlüsselung der Koransprache. 350 pp., Berlin: Hans-Schiler-Verlag. Persian translation: Luxenberg, Christoph (2020). The Syro-Aramaic Reading of the Quran: An Inquiry into Deciphering the Language of the Quran, trans. B. Bīniyāz (Dariush), 323 pp., Cologne: Forugh Publications.
Luxenberg, Christoph (2021). "The Abbasid Separation from Umayyad (Eastern/Unitarian) Christianity." A dialogue with Sami Awed Al-Theeb, n.p.
Maier, Christian; van Ess, Professor Josef (2013). "The Origins of Islam: The Formation and Consolidation of the Islamic Religion in a Conversation between Christian Maier and Professor Josef van Ess, German Islamologist." Iranian-Islamic Studies, Autumn, No. 6, pp. 167–174.
Abū Shuhbah, Muḥammad Muḥammad (1967). "Taḥwīl al-Qiblah ilā al-Kaʿbah; ilā ayyati jihatin kāna yuṣallī al-Rasūl qabla al-Hijrah matā kāna al-taḥwīl lil-Kaʿbah?" [The Change of the Qibla to the Kaaba; Towards which direction did the Prophet pray before the Hijra? When was the change to the Kaaba?]. Al-Waʿy al-Islāmī, Year 2, Shaʿbān, No. 20, pp. 16–19.
ʿAkkāshah, Muḥammad Naʿīm (1980). "Al-Kaʿbah al-Musharrafah awwal bayt wuḍiʿa lil-nās" [The Honoured Kaaba, the First House Established for Mankind]. Al-Azhar, Year 52, Dhū al-Ḥijjah, Part 9, pp. 1735–1739.
Al-Shahrī, Muḥammad Hazzāʿ Mahdī (2013). "ʿImārat al-Kaʿbah al-Musharrafah fī ʿahd Quraysh" [The Construction of the Honoured Kaaba in the Era of the Quraysh]. Umm al-Qurā University, Dhū al-Qaʿdah, No. 58, pp. 219–281.
Mohammad, Khalil (2018). "Islam and Genesis 17: A Study in Intertextuality." Religions, Vol. 9, No. 293, pp. 1–14.
Mohammadi, Abdolhossein; Molaei Niya, Izzatollah (2007). The Performance of Hajj in Islamic History (First Century AH). MA Thesis, Al-Mustafa International University, Faculty of Theology and Islamic Studies.
American Center of Oriental Research (2018). The Petra Papyri I–V (5-volume set). Amman: American Center of Oriental Research.
Mazloomi, Javad (2004). "Places and Artifacts: The Names of the Kaaba's Pillars." Miqat Hajj, Winter, Nos. 50, 52, 53, pp. 49–74, 75–94, 129–150.
Motamedrad, Mohammad Hossein (2022). "Introduction and Recognition of the Rulers of Mecca, from the Beginning to the Period of the Four Rightly-Guided Caliphs." Quarterly Journal of Growth in History Education, Autumn, Serial No. 81, pp. 23–27.
Monnan, Khurshid Alam (2023). Revisiting Prophet Muhammad, Mecca, and the Beqaa Valley: A Composite Method Based on the Qur'anic Model and Contemporary Research. Preprint, Center for Academic and Professional Career Development (CAPCDR), Center No. 200, Anaconda, Upashi 8023, Bangladesh.
Montazer Mahdi, Majid (n.d.). "Short Note on the Qibla and its Direction." Twitter site: @Majid Montazer Mahdi.
Morris, Ian D. (2018). "Mecca and Macoraba." Al-ʿUṣūr al-Wusṭā, Vol. 26, No. 1. https://doi.org/10.7916/alusur.v26i1.6850
Mousavi Moghaddam, Seyyed Mohammad; Mowdab, Seyyed Reza (2015). "An Examination of the New Skepticism Theory Concerning the Character and Biography of the Prophet (PBUH)." Studies in Evolution in the Humanities, Autumn-Winter, No. 5, pp. 46–80.
Mousavi Moghaddam, Seyyed Mohammad (2013). A Survey of Sirah Research Trends in the West, with Emphasis on the Views of William Montgomery Watt. 719 pp., Qom: University of Qur'anic Sciences and Education.
Mahdavi Charmi, Hadi; Rohi, Alireza; Mojtabavi, Hossein (2021). "The Letters of the Prophet (PBUH) to the Kings and Montgomery Watt's Ideas on the Subject." History of Islam, Year 22, Summer, No. 2 (Serial 86), pp. 7–44.
Mahdikhani Sarvojahani, Seyyed Hassan (2013). "A Critique of Mas'udi's Report on the Iranians' Attention to the Kaaba in the Pre-Islamic Era." History and Islamic Civilization, Spring-Summer, No. 17, pp. 41–58.
Mirdamadi, Yaser (2017). "The Origins of Islam (A Conversation between Christian Maier and Josef van Ess, German Islamologist)." Published August 1. Available at: http://mohammadmojtahedshabestari.com
Mirkarimi, Zuhair (2022). "A Report on Some Researchers' Findings Regarding Inscriptions and Rock Inscriptions in Arabia during the Ancient and Early Islamic Periods and their Implications for Religious Studies." Host: Quranic Discussions Association, January 18, Anqa Telegram Channel. Available at: https://t.me/anqanotes/601
Mirkarimi, Zuhair (2022). "Critiques, Views, and Questions (A Report on Some Researchers' Findings Regarding Inscriptions and Rock Inscriptions in Arabia during the Ancient and Early Islamic Periods and their Implications for Religious Studies)." Host: Quranic Discussions Association, January 18, Anqa Telegram Channel. Available at: https://t.me/anqanotes/605
Nassarat, Mohammad Ibrahim A.; Twaysi, Sa'd Ahmad A. (2016). "The Titles of Petra in the Sixth Century." Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy, Vol. 27, pp. 208–214.
Nassarat, Mohammad Ibrahim A. (2019). "Petra, Taxes and Trade; A Reassessment Using the Petra Church Archive." Palestine Exploration Quarterly, Vol. 151, No. 1, pp. 50–68.
Naseri Karimvand, Amanollah; Akbarnejad, Mahdi; Shamkhi, Mina (2020). "An Inquiry into the Reality of Bayt al-Ma'mur with an Approach to Analyzing Narratives." Dynamic in Humanities Education, Summer, Serial No. 19, pp. 39–49.
Nazemian Fard, Ali (2009). "The Ilaf of Quraysh and its Impact on the Economic and Social Life of Mecca in the Pre-Islamic Era." History of Islam and Iran, Year 19, Summer, No. 2, pp. 104–126.
Anonymous (2025). "In Search of the Kaaba (The Origin of Islam: Petra, Iraq, or Central Asia – Balkh?)." Naqdagin Website. Address: @Naqdagin
Anonymous (n.d.). "Mecca or Petra? A Reflection on the Hagarist Origin Hypothesis of Islam." Religious Questions Answering Website.
Anonymous (n.d.). "A Critique of the Documentary The Sacred City." Anti-Shobahat Website.
Unknown (2016). The Syriac Chronicle Known as the Khuzistan Chronicle (An Account of the Final Years of the Sasanian Empire), trans. Khodadad Rezakhani, Sajjad Amiri Bavandpour. 198 pp., Tehran: Hekmat Sina.
Al-Najjār, Al-Ṭayyib Ḥasan (1949). "Taḥwīl al-Qiblah min Bayt al-Maqdis ilā al-Kaʿbah" [The Change of the Qibla from Jerusalem to the Kaaba]. Al-Azhar, Vol. 20, Rabīʿ al-Awwal, No. 3, pp. 221–225.
Najafi, Hamid Reza; Diyari Bidgoli, Mohammad Taghi (2002). Prophet Abraham (AS) in the Quran and the Testaments. MA Thesis, Qom University, Faculty of Theology.
Nasaji Zavareh, Esmail (2001). "Descriptions of the Kaaba." Lessons from the School of Islam, Vol. 41, Dey, No. 10, pp. 66–69.
Nasr Esfahani, Behnam; Kajbaf, Ali Akbar; Montazer al-Qaem, Asghar (2023). "A Comparative Study of the Representation of the Sirah of the Prophet (PBUH) and Islamic History in the Books Hagarism and The Face of Muhammad." Historical Science Research, Autumn, No. 35, pp. 107–126.
Nosrati, Sepideh; Elmi, Ghorban; Gozashteh, Nasser (2017). "A Review and Critique of Patricia Crone's Revisionist Views in the Field of Islamic Studies." History and Islamic Civilization, Spring-Summer, No. 25, pp. 121–147.
Nouri Zanjanj, Mohammad Esmail (2016). "Verses Related to Events; The Reconstruction of the Kaaba by Abraham and Ishmael (Peace be upon them)." Moballeghan, Mordad-Shahrivar, No. [Missing], pp. 23–33.
Nouri Zanjanj, Mohammad Esmail (2016). "Verses Related to Events; The Change of the Qibla from Jerusalem to the Kaaba." Moballeghan, Farvardin-Ordibehesht, No. 201, pp. 11–24.
Nevo, Yehuda D.; Koren, Judith (2003). Crossroads to Islam: The Origins of the Arab Religion and the Arab State. 462 pp., Amherst, New York: Prometheus Books.
Waugh, Daniel C. (2012). "Review of Qur'ānic Geography." The Silk Road, No. 10, p. 201.
Watt, W. Montgomery (1953). Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman. 450 pp., London: Oxford University Press. Persian translation: Watt, Montgomery (1965). Muhammad, Prophet and Statesman, trans. Esmail Valizadeh, Tehran: Islamiyah Bookstore.
Watt, W. Montgomery (1958). "The Early Development of Islam: A Historical Survey." Journal of Islamic Studies, Year 20, No. 3, pp. 100–135.
Watt, W. Montgomery (1961). Islam and the Arabs. 520 pp., London: Oxford University Press.
Watt, W. Montgomery (1965). "The Life of Muhammad and the Origin of Islam." Journal of Middle East History, Year 25, No. 1, pp. 50–80.
Webb, Peter (2023). "The History and Importance of Mecca – Hajj: From Pre-Islam to the Rise of the Abbasids." c. 30 pp., n.p.: Published on . Academia.edu.
Wansbrough, John (1977). Quranic Studies: Sources and Methods of Scriptural Interpretation. c. 200 pp., Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Wansbrough, John (1978). The Sectarian Milieu: Content and Composition of Islamic Salvation History. c. 200 pp., Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Vakili, Shervin (2022). "The Inarah School in Islamic Historiography." Personal Weblog, March 6. Address: https://www.soshians.net/fa
Al-Walī, Ṭāhā (1979). "Al-Kaʿbah al-Muʿaẓẓamah wa marāḥil bināʾihā fī al-tārīkh" [The Great Kaaba and the Stages of its Construction throughout History]. Al-Waʿy al-Islāmī, Year 14, Dhū al-Ḥijjah, No. 168, pp. 68–78.
Wittke, Anne-Maria; Olshausen, Eckhart; Szydlak, Richard (2009). Historischer Atlas der antiken Welt [Historical Atlas of the Ancient World]. Special edition of Der Neue Pauly. 308 pp., Stuttgart, Germany: J.B. Metzler.
Holland, Tom (2012). In the Shadow of the Sword: The Battle for Global Empire and the End of the Ancient World. c. 544 pp., UK: Little, Brown.
Hawting, Gerald R. (2007). *The Umayyads: The First Dynasty to Rule in Islam (661 - 750 CE)*, trans. Isa Abdi. 196 pp., Tehran: Amir Kabir, Franklin Pocket Books Co.
Hawting, Gerald R. (2025). Collection: 'The Kaaba and Hajj in Early Islam from the Perspective of Gerald R. Hawting' (The Connection of the Kaaba with Hajj in Early Islam: First Article 'A Playground for Kings? The Hadith of Aisha, Ibn al-Zubayr and the Reconstruction of the Kaaba'; Second Article 'Ibn al-Zubayr, the Kaaba and the Dome of the Rock'; etc.). Anqa Telegram Channel. Address: https://t.me/anqanotes/786
Hawting, Gerald R. (1999). The Idea of Idolatry and the Emergence of Islam: From Polemic to History. Cambridge University, UK. Persian translation (2007): The Idea of Idolatry and the Emergence of Islam: From Polemic to History, trans. A'zam Pouyazadeh, Maryam Pirovan. 332 pp., Tehran: Hekmat.
Hawting, G.R. (2000). Studies in Islamic and Middle Eastern Texts and Traditions in Memory of Norman Calder. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Herrera-Casais, Mónica; Schmidl, Petra G. (2008). "The Earliest Known Islamic Mapping of the Sacred Geography." In: Akasoy, Anna; Raven, Wim (Eds.), Islamic Thought in the Middle Ages: Studies in Text, Transmission and Translation, in Honour of Hans Daiber. Leiden: Brill, pp. 275–300.
Hemmati, Mohammad Ali; Shaker, Mohammad Kazem (2016). Report, Critique and Analysis of Christoph Luxenberg's Views in 'The Syro-Aramaic Reading of the Quran'. Qom: Faculty of Principles of Religion.
Hindi, Mubarak Ali (2010). "The History of the Construction of the Kaaba," trans. Hossein Vatheghi. Miqat Hajj, Spring, No. 71, pp. 117–146.
Healey, John F. (2000). The Religion of the Nabataeans: A Conspectus. Leiden; Boston; Köln: Brill, pp. 56–57.
Yadegari, Maryam; Mousavi, Seyyed Reza (2017). The Description of Mecca in Arabic Hajj Travelogues, A Case Study (Ibn Jubayr, Mazini, Muhammad Husayn Haykal, Shakib Arsalan). MA Thesis, Shahid Madani University of Azerbaijan.
Yildirim, Fatih; Qazi, Fakhruddin; Shahin, Suleyman Lutfi; Ozon, Burak (2025). "The Issue of Qibla Direction in Large-Scale Maps and its Representation with Geodetic Accuracy: A Case Study in Turkey." International Journal of Engineering and Geosciences, Vol. 10, No. 2, pp. 151–163.
 
Additional Key Sources:
Crone, Patricia; Cook, Michael (1977). Hagarism: The Making of the Islamic World. 296 pp., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cook, Michael (2015). "Obituary for Patricia Crone." Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, Vol. 78, No. 1, pp. 1–4.
King, David A. (2018–2019). "Review of Early Islamic Qiblas." Suhayl: Journal for the History of the Exact and Natural Sciences in Islamic Civilisation, No. 16–17, pp. 347–366.
Gibson, Dan (2011). Qur'ānic Geography: A Survey and Evaluation of the Geographical References in the Qur'ān with Suggested Solutions for Various Problems and Issues. 240 pp., Independent Scholars Press.
Gibson, Dan (2017). *Early Islamic Qiblas: A Study of Mosques Built Between 1 AH / 622 CE and 263 AH / 876 CE*. 320 pp., Canada: Independent Scholars Press.
Hoyland, Robert (2015). "Patricia Crone (1945–2015)." Introduction in Islamic Cultures, Islamic Contexts: Essays in Honour of Professor Patricia Crone. Leiden: Brill. See also: Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 135, No. 1, pp. 103–105.